Kenneth A. Clontz

Using Atlas Pro Analysis for Examining the Relationship Between Commercial Land Use and Burglary



Abstract

This exploratory study empirically tests the assumptions of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) on the crime of commercial burglary. Few studies have pursued this subject. Therefore, this work explores the relationship between commercial burglary and environmental factors using both quantitative and qualitative research methods.

Thirty-four independent variables are documented and empirically tested using logistic regression. The resulting data is also tested for interactions among the independent variables, something no other research has done.

A major finding of this work is that mixed land-use is a contributing factor in the risk of commercial burglary. Accessibility was also discovered to be significant. Accessibility, as a category, examines pedestrian and automobile traffic, types of front doors, and whether the windows are obstructed. The last category supports prior studies indicating obstructed windows increase the risk of crime. Another result of this research fails to find that automobile traffic plays any part in predicting crime.


INTRODUCTION

A total of 2,979,884 burglaries were reported to American police in 1990. One-third (993,295) of these were nonresidential crimes resulting in an average dollar loss per incident of $1,400 (Uniform Crime Reports [UCR], 1992). Little empirical research is available regarding these commercial property crimes. Only three studies dealing with commercial burglary and the physical environment were located during the foundational research phase of this study.

Literature Review

Conklin and Bittner (1973) investigated the crime of burglary in a suburban setting, obtaining data a local police department for a one year period. This yielded the researchers a total of 945 cases, including completed burglaries, attempted burglaries, and suspected burglaries. Reports indicated that almost two-thirds of the burglaries occurred between the hours of 7:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m. This time is popular with burglars because most businesses are closed. Also most thefts occurred on weekends, capitalizing on the fact that some businesses are not open between Friday afternoon and Monday morning.

Jack Nasar investigated commercial burglaries in Knoxville, Tennessee over a six-month period in 1979. Hypothesizing that premise cleanliness would reduce the chance of burglary, he also believed the presence of vegetation in an area would increase the chance of a business being burglarized. Additionally he expected businesses located on major highways would have a higher rate of burglary than those located on minor roads. Finally, Nasar posited that buildings located on corner lots or those adjacent to vacant lots would show a higher victimization rate.

He found significant effects correlating with cleanliness, vegetation, type of roadway, and corner location. Commercial burglaries did occur more often when businesses were located at an intersection. Lack of vegetation, however, resulted in higher rates of burglary, a contradiction to Nasar's expectations. Analysis indicates that nonresidential burglary rates are higher if the business is located close to a major highway. Finally, rates of burglary are higher in facilities located in "dirty" surroundings (Nasar, 1981). Unfortunately he did not define the parameters of his chosen term.

The third study was conducted by Brantingham and Brantingham (1981). Brantinghams' research was conducted in New Westminister, British Columbia. They focused on target choice behavior. In other words, how people remember the physical environment. The target emphasis is on paths and landmarks. Their study showed that crime rates for commercial properties higher on moderate traffic flow roads when compared to either high or low traffic highways. This research does not support Nasar's (1981) conclusion that major highways contribute to higher burglary rates.

Purpose of the Study

A substantial body of research demonstrates a link between the physical environment and spatial variations in crime (Clontz, 1997; Jeffery, 1990; Jeffery, 1992; Hunter, 1990). The present exploratory study examines the impact of the physical environment on individual crime sites. This micro-level research utilizes Jeffery's Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) as the theoretical basis for this examination. The rationale for selecting this theory is presented below.

CPTED has two main tenets. First, crime and criminal behavior is a product of the interaction between the physical organism and the physical environment. Second, crime sites require analysis, applying both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to their physical characteristics that in turn could be altered to prevent future crimes (Hunter, 1990; Jeffery, 1990; Jeffery, 1992).

METHODOLOGY

Geographical Area

Tallahassee, the capital city of Florida, provides the site for this research. Home to two major universities and a large community college, the city occupies approximately 59-square-miles, and according to the 1990 census over 127,000 people reside within this area.

The Myers Park neighborhood lies within the Tallahassee city limits. This locale is the chosen site for the current study. Myers Park residences are bounded to the north by Myers Park (hence the neighborhood's name) and Seaboard Coast Railroad. To the east lies the Capital City Country Club and Country Club Drive, while the western border of the neighborhood is defined by South Monroe Street. To the south, the area is bounded by Magnolia Drive. Figure 1 displays the Myers Park neighborhood.

The Myers Park Neighborhood

Directly north of Myers Park lies Tallahassee's downtown district and Apalachee Parkway. The downtown area between South Monroe Street and the city park is predominantly occupied by state government buildings and offices. Apalachee Parkway, bordering the park on the north side, is a four-lane major traffic corridor, and is the location of a major commercial strip supporting motels, restaurants, and a shopping mall. To the east of the Myers Park neighborhood is a predominantly middle-class residential neighborhood. The western border is South Monroe Street, another major four-lane traffic corridor in the city of Tallahassee. As Figure 1 shows, Monroe Street is the only street allowing motorists to travel through the city from north to south without changing routes. South Monroe Street is also a commercial corridor. Immediately south of the Myers Park neighborhood is an area with both public and subsidized rental housing.

There is a marked contrast within the neighborhood between the homes located east of Meridian Street and those located west of Meridian Street. Not only does Meridian Street allow people to travel into and out of the capital area, but it also separates the Myers Park neighborhood into two separate types of residences. Moderate to expensive housing is located between Meridian Street and Golf Terrace Drive. Low to moderate cost housing is found between Meridian Street and South Monroe Street.

Hypotheses

The overlying hypothesis is that commercial burglary patterns in Tallahassee, FL are not uniformly distributed. Certain sites will have a higher probability of having an occurrence of burglary than other sites given relevant environmental factors (Brantingham and Brantingham, 1978; D'Alessio and Stolzenberg, 1990). From this general expectation, 34 specific research hypotheses are developed.

Of the 34 hypotheses, five (H1 - H5) examine factors pertaining to the physical structure.

H1: Taller structures have a greater risk of being burglarized than smaller buildings.

H2: Buildings constructed from material other than masonry will have a higher risk of burglary than structures built out of masonry.

H3: Units with a poor exterior appearance will have a higher risk of being burglarized.

H4: Rented buildings will have a higher risk of burglary than structures that are owned.

H5: As mobility of the residents increase, the risk of burglary will increase.

H6 through H19 investigate the relationship between the physical environment and crime.

H6: Buildings in which the property setbacks are not uniform have a higher risk of being burglarized.

H7: Structures surrounded by a fence will have a greater chance of being burglarized than structures without fences.

H8: As the number of gates in a fence increases, so does the risk of burglary.

H9: Fences less than 4 feet tall increases the risk of burglary.

H10: Structures that do not have street lights installed on their property have a higher risk of burglary.

H11: If the building is not visible from the street, the risk of burglary increases.

H12: If the front entrance is not visible from the street, the risk of burglary increases.

H13: As the number of entrances that are visible from the road decrease, the risk of burglary increases.

H14: Properties that have front doors with glass in them have a greater risk of being burglarized.

H15: Buildings without separate screen doors have a higher risk of being burglarized.

H16: As the number of windows increase, the risk of burglary increases.

H17: If the windows are obstructed, the risk of burglary increases.

H18: If the shrubbery is above the window sill, the risk of burglary increases.

H19: If the tree limbs are less than 6 feet off the ground, the risk of burglary increases.

Land-use planning is explored in the next four hypotheses (H20 - H23).

H20: If the property directly in front of the structure is of a different type, the risk of burglary increases.

H21: If the property directly to the left of the structure is of a different type, the risk of burglary increases.

H22: If the property directly to the right of the structure is of a different type, the risk of being burglarized increases.

H23: If the property is located near the golf course or park, the risk of burglary increases.

Security measures are analyzed in H24 through H29.

H24: Buildings without burglar bars on the windows have a higher risk of burglary.

H25: Buildings without flood lights have a higher risk of burglary.

H26: Structures that do not have a burglar alarm system are at greater risk of being burglarized.

H27: Buildings that do not have a sticker in the window that indicates that property has been marked for recovery by the police have a greater risk of being burglarized.

H28: Buildings that do not have property chained or secured to the unit have a greater risk of burglary.

H29: The lack of any other type of security features increases the risk of burglary.

The last five (H30 - H34) hypotheses deal with the transportation network.

H30: Properties located on major roads have a higher risk of burglary.

H31: Properties that have a sidewalk will have a higher risk of burglaries.

H32: As the number of vehicles using a roadway increases, the risk of burglary will increase.

H33: Properties that are not adjacent to railroad tracks will have a higher risk of burglary.

H34: Buildings on corner lots have a higher risk of being burglarized.

Sample and Data Collection

Data for this study were obtained from three sources. First, information on the crime of commercial burglary was gathered from the Tallahassee Police Department and the Leon County Sheriff's Office. This information details area offenses from January 1, 1988 until December 31, 1991. Within this time frame, 46 cases of commercial burglary in the Myers Park district were reported to law enforcement officials.

The second source of information was gathered on each of the 81 pieces of commercial property within the Myers Park neighborhood through an on-site survey.

Additional figures concerning the traffic count for the roads in the Myers Park area were obtained from the city of Tallahassee's Traffic Engineering section. These figures were obtained by counting the number of vehicles passing over a counter, placed in the roadway, within a 24 hour period. Traffic counts were taken over several days and the figures were averaged to produce the numbers used in this study.

Definitions of Key Terms and Variables

There are a number of terms herein that require precise definition. First, the definition of burglary is given. Even though the data was collected by the Tallahassee police department, the Records division provided the UCR definition of burglary. Accordingly, this research uses that definition, which is "the unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or a theft."

"Commercial properties" are any buildings in which the occupants engage in commerce. These include, but are not limited to, gas stations, shopping centers, movie theaters, universities, schools, and hospitals. There are 81 properties within the Myers Park neighborhood fitting this description.

People commonly use the words road, street, and highway interchangeably. For this research, the terms "major roads," "collector roads," and "local or minor roads" are used. Each of these words has a specific meaning. A "major road" uses four or more travel lanes to move large quantities of traffic. "Collector roads" funnel traffic from the local roads, feeding it into major roads. These collector roads can have two or more travel lanes. "Minor or local roads" provide access to individual properties in a residential neighborhood (Leung, 1989).

Variables

Thirty-four independent variables are utilized for this research, along with one dependent variable. Each of the independent variables have been explored in prior research with the exceptions of SCRFRTDR, YRSRES, CONSTRUC, and TRAFFIC.

Units with separate screen doors (SCRFRTDR) could have a lower rate of burglary, provided occupants lock the screen door. This would cause the thief to spend time opening two doors, instead of one. The researcher believed that the type of construction (CONSTRUC) used in the building would interact with the general exterior appearance of the structure. Masonry structures are easier to maintain than buildings constructed out of wood. Wooden buildings require painting at regular intervals to maintain their exterior appearance. Prior studies have used the type of road in order to get an idea about vehicular traffic. This present work also examines the roadways (ROAD), in order to compare results with previous studies. In addition, this study also obtained the traffic count (TRAFFIC) from the city. Such information allows the researcher to know the number of vehicles using the streets in each 24-hour period. Finally, the number of years that the property has been occupied (YRSRES) is recorded. From this a determination can be made about the rate at which people are moving into and out of the neighborhood. Areas with high population turnover should be more susceptible to burglary, because people cannot be certain who their neighbors are, or even if an individual belongs in the neighborhood.

Variable names, their descriptions, and coding schemes are listed in Table 1.


Table 1

Variables Utilized in the Study.


HYPOTHESIS NUMBER VARIABLE NAME DESCRIPTION CODING SCHEME
Dependent Variable
CBURG Indicates whether or not a burlary occurred at a commercial establsihment. 0 = No
1 = Yes
Independent Variables
1 STORIES Number of stories in building. Actual Number
2 CONSTRUC Type of construction used in the exterior of the structure. 0 = Brick
1 = Wood
2 = Stone
3 = Concrete Block
4 = Other
3 GENAPP General exterior appearance of the building and yard. 0 = Excellent
1 = Good
2 = Fair
3 = Poor
4 = Bad
4 OWNRENT Property is listed as owned, rented, or vacant. 0 = Owned
1 = Rent
2 = Vacant
9 = Missing
5 YRSRES Number of years that the property has been occupied. Actual Number (If 10 or more years, then number is coded as 10. For multifamily dwellings, this variable is coded for the person who has lived longest at that address)

99 = Missing

6 ESIDE Position of adjacent structure on either side of the property. 0 = In a Straight
Line

1 = Staggered

7 FENCE Does the property have a fence. 0 = No
1 = Yes
8 GATES Number of gates in the fence that are visible from the road. Actual Number
9 HGTFENCE Height of the fence that surrounds the property. 0 = No Fence
1 = < 4 ft.
2 = > 4 ft.
10 STLIGHT Are there lighting fixtures on the premises. 0 = No
1 = Yes
11 VISST Building is visible from the street. 0 = No
1 = Yes
12 FRONT Front door is visible to neighbors. 0 = No
1 = Yes
13 NUMENTR Number of entrances visible from the road. Actual Number
14 TYPFRNT Type of front door. 0 = Solid Wood
1 = Partial Wood
15 SCRFRTDR Separate screen door on front entrance. 0 = No
1 = Yes
16 NUMWIND Number of windows visible from the road. Actual Number
17 WINDOBS Windows are obstructed. 0 = No
1 = Yes
18 SHRUB Shrubbery are below the window sill. 0 = No
1 = Yes
19 TREE Tree limbs are at least 6 feet from the ground. 0 = No
1 = Yes
20 SURPRPFT Property located directly in front of the building is different. 0 = No
1 = Yes
21 SURPRPLT Property located to the left of the unit, while facing it from the road is different. 0 = No
1 = Yes
22 SURPRPRG Property located to the right of the unit, while facing it from the road is different. 0 = No
1 = Yes
23 PARKGOLF Property is located near the golf course or park. 0 = No
1 = Yes
24 SEC1 Window bars on the building. 0 = No
1 = Yes
25 SEC2 Flood lights on the building. 0 = No
1 = Yes
26 SEC3 Burglar alarm present. 0 = No
1 = Yes
28 SEC5 Property located outside the building is chained or secured to the building. 0 = No
1 = Yes
29 SEC6 Other type of security measure employed. 0 = No
1 = Yes
30 ROAD Type of road that the structure is located on. 0 = Major Road
1 = Collector Road
2 = Local Road
31 SIDEWALK Sidewalk is located in front of the property. 0 = No
1 = Yes
32 RAILRD Railroad tracks adjacent to the property. 0 = No
1 = Yes
33 TRAFFIC Number of vehicles using the road in a 24-hour period. Actual Number
34 CORNER Property is located on a corner lot. 0 = No
1 = Yes

Analysis Employed

Logistic regression is employed for this study. Several reasons prompted this choice for analysis. First, logistic regression requires a dichotomized dependent variable. The dependent variable of this study is dichotomized. Second, this statistical technique can handle both continuous variables and categorical variables within the same equation. Most independent variables used in this research are measured at the nominal or ordinal level. Finally, logistic regression can test for interaction effects, and this research requires that variables be tested for interaction effects, something prior CPTED studies have failed to do. One innovation of the present work is this examination of the data for such interaction effects (Johnston, 1978; Norušis, 1990; Wrigley, 1976).

Besides the statistical analysis conducted in SPSS/PC+ (version 4.0), data mapping was carried out using ATLAS PRO (version 2.1) by Strategic Mapping, Inc. This program plots data by individual street address, permitting a search for any type of qualitative differences. Also, physical plotting enables the researcher to identify any spatial patterns present in the data that normal statistical analysis misses.

Limitations of the Research

The first limitation of the study is its use of a non-probability sample (i.e., convenience sample). This restricts the generalizability of the research. Second, while this work only tests one component of CPTED, namely the physical environment, CPTED is actually composed of both a physical environment and an organism. No study to date has been able to test both the physical environment and the organism simultaneously. Previous studies either examined the physical environment or the organism. The third problem facing the research is the time-order of events. With a classic "the chicken or the egg" conundrum, it was not possible in a majority of the cases to determine which came first, the crime or the security measures. Fourth, the way data were collected is problematic. The researcher collected data as though he were "casing" the building, recording only information visible from the street. Due to this "plain sight" approach, the researcher was unable to gather certain information, such as the types of locks on the door and the type of property located at the rear of the structure. Fifth, official data was used for the dependent variable. Limitations of official versus unofficial data have been discussed at length by O'Brien (1985). Suffice it to say that the police are not aware of all crimes that occur.

RESULTS

For evaluating the overall fit of the models a pseudo R2 is used (see end note) (Aldrich and Nelson, 1984; Kennedy and Forde, 1990). Only results statistically significant at the .05 level or below are reported. Concluding this part of the paper is the qualitative analysis. Within this section, the physical environment surrounding the Myers Park neighborhood is described in detail, including such features as public housing around the area and land-use planning factors. Lastly, the crime of burglary will be overviewed as it impacted on the dependent variable of commercial burglary.

Commercial Burglaries

The only variable excluded from the analysis was HGTFENCE. Because fences around commercial establishment were the same height, hypothesis 9 was not testable.

Only the variables SURPRPFT and WINDOBS were significant after the statistical analysis was performed. Hypotheses 17 and 20 are supported by the data. The results may be viewed in Table 2.

Table 2

Logistic Regression Model Estimating the Effects of Environmental Variables on Commercial Burglary.


Variable B S.E. Sig Exp(B)
WINDOBS -1.0586 .5120 .0387 0.3469
SURPRPFT -1.3198 .6307 .0364 0.2672
Constant 1.2577 .5928 .0339
B = estimated coefficients
S. E. = standard error
Sig = significance level for Wald statistic
Exp(B) = factor by which the odds change when the independent variable increases by one unit
Correctly predicted 61.22%
N = 98
Model = 10.813, d.f. = 2, p = .0045
Pseudo R2 = .0993

Variables WINDOBS and SURPRPFT are statistically significant. Commercial property in which the windows (WINDOBS) were unobstructed by signs, curtains, and other items were less likely to be burglarized (0.3469). When commercial properties have similar properties located in front of them, they are not as apt to be burglarized (0.2672).

Land-use in the form of SURPRPFT shows up in the model as statistically significant. This variable states that the property directly in front of the unit under investigation is of a different type. In this case, the property turned out to be either single-family, duplexes, or multifamily units. This factor explains almost 10% of the variance.

The equation is able to successfully predict 61.22% of total cases. This percentage breaks down into 60 (48 non-burglaries [92.31%] and 12 burglaries [26.09%] cases) cases being correctly identified by the equation. With 2 degrees of freedom and a model chi-square of 10.813, the overall model is statistically significant (p = .0045).

Qualitative Analysis

This section turns to qualitative methods for analysis of the data. Three maps of the Myers Park neighborhood are used in this portion of the research. The maps assist readers in recognizing patterns that quantitative research results might miss. To accomplish this goal, the initial step is presenting an overview of the Myers Park neighborhood and its surrounding area. The work then reviews the dependent variable of commercial structures. Focusing on the two remaining figures, a search is made for patterns among these variables not identified by the quantitative analysis.

Myers Park

The geographical location was described in detail previously. This section begins with examining the surrounding environment, along with the public housing located to the east and west of the Myers Park area. Land-use zoning is explored in the next part. Finally, an overview of the people's perception of problems within the Myers Park area is presented.

Surrounding Environment

A surrounding environment effects the problems in a neighborhood. The location of stores, schools, and other businesses draw people from all over the city. Considering that the area ringing the Myers Park section of Tallahassee has all these attractive features prompts closer examination. On the east side of the Myers Park neighborhood are two city parks and a golf course. Country Club Park is at the intersection of Golf Terrance Drive and Magnolia Avenue. This 4.2 acre park contains three baseball fields. Encircling Country Club park is the Capitol City Country Club which contains 17 acres. The golf course has a wooded area on the east and south sides. Also on the south side, there is an approximately 8-foot chain link fence stretching from Golf Terrace Drive to Country Club Drive. There are numerous holes in this fence.

North of Capitol City Country Club lies a second park. Myers Park itself is located at Lafayette Street and Myers Park Drive. This 40-acre park includes a playground, fitness trail, tennis courts, baseball diamonds, and a swimming pool. The fitness trail runs through a large wooded area on the north and east side of the park.

Beyond the park is a predominantly white middle-class residential neighborhood. This section of the city features mostly single-family homes. Here again, the larger and more expensive units are located along the golf course.

To the west of the Myers Park neighborhood is South Monroe Street, a major commercial corridor of the city. The only 4-lane major roadway in Tallahassee a motorist can use to travel a north-south direction without changing routes, this is a major commercial area of the city.

Florida A & M University is located less than a half mile from the Myers Park neighborhood. This is one of two major universities located in Tallahassee.

Adjoining the neighborhood to the north is the capitol area, a historical district, and Apalachee Parkway. This part of the city is separated from the Myers Park community by Seaboard Coast railroad. The parkway is the one of the major east-west highways of the city. There are motels, restaurants, bars, and a shopping mall all located within walking distance of the Myers Park area.

South of the neighborhood is an area with both public and subsidized rental housing. Three public housing projects exist within three-tenths of a mile. Additionally, Rickards High School and Leonard Wesson Elementary School are located within a mile of the Myers Park neighborhood. Several convenience stores, fast food restaurants, and small businesses are also located within this area.

Public Housing

A majority of public housing in Tallahassee was built in the late 1960s or 1970s. Before the advent of scattered site housing, the trend was to locate public housing in one or two parts of town. In Tallahassee this resulted in public housing being built around the two universities and on the south end of the city. Regarding the Myers Park community, there are five government subsidized multifamily housing structures within a half mile radius of the Myers Park community. To the east are two complexes located behind Florida A & M University (Leon Arms and Suakoko Villa), both built in 1969. The apartment complexes contain 2 and 3 bedroom units. There are 100 units in each complex.

The other three units of public housing are located to the south. One, Magnolia Terrace, is across the street from Country Club Park and Capital City Country Club. This complex, built in 1973, contains 108 one, two, three, and four bedroom apartments. The other two units (Holifield Arms and Orange Avenue Apartments) were built in 1971. Holifield Arms has one, two, three, and four bedroom units, whereas Orange Avenue Apartments have all these and five bedroom apartments as well. Holifield Arms is one of the smaller public housing units in Tallahassee with only 99 rooms. In contrast, the largest unit is the Orange Avenue Apartments with 200 apartments (Tallahassee-Leon County Planning Department, 1993).

Zoning

Mixed land-use is encouraged by the city's zoning code (Tallahassee City Code 88-0-0024 § 1-3, 3-9-88). Within the Myers Park community are eight different zones as seen in Figure 2.

Zoning Map of Tallahassee

Most of the area east of Meridian Street is zoned single, two, three, four, and multiple-family residential district (RM-1). This is low-density use. Along South Monroe Street the property is listed as automotive commercial district (C-4). Between Meridian Street and Monroe Street the area is zoned for central business use (C-3), office and residential district (OR), general commercial district (C-2), and multiple family residential district (RM-3).

In addition to the way the property is zoned, Figure 3 shows actual usage. To match the two figures when the property is listed as single-family, duplex, or multifamily the code on the zoning map will show either RM-1 or RM-3. Commercial property is listed as either OR, C-2, C-3, or C-4.

Locations of Buildings within the Myers Park Neighborhood

It was originally believed by the author that the three land-use variables (SURPRPLT, SURPRPRG, and SURPRPFT) would either all be statistically significant or they all would not. This proved not to be the case. One variable, SURPRPFT (property located directly in front of the unit being studied, while facing it from the road is a different type of structure), was statistically significant in the final model. Just using quantitative methods, this variable defied the expected pattern as suggested by prior research, nor could the author state with any degree of certainty why this variable was statistically significant, while the other two land-use variables (SURPRPRT and SURPRPLT) were not.

By examining Figure 3, however, a clear pattern emerges. When facing the various properties land-use patterns shift to the left. As an example, look at the railroad tracks on Figure 3, move south to the road running parallel to the railroad tracks. Now examine the buildings on the south side of the street. At the first western intersection, is a single-family home, to the right are several multifamily units. Across the next intersection, there are two single-family homes. Then there is a series of duplexes at the intersection, followed by more single-family units. The only place that does not follow this pattern is South Monroe Street. All structures there are commercial in nature. This pattern remains evident when looking at Figure 4. This figure displays only buildings burglarized.

Location of Reported Burglaries

Commercial Establishments

The last figure examined deals with commercial burglaries. As expected most of them occur along South Monroe Street or South Gadsden Street, as this is where most of the businesses are located. By looking at Figure 5, it becomes evident that many businesses are located on or near an intersection.

Reported Commercial Burglary Crime Sites

Another geographical feature to note: many burglarized locations are located next to undeveloped land (i.e., Myers Park, the golf course, or vacant lots). This is similar to the pattern exhibited in multifamily burglaries (Clontz, 1997). The building in the park is the swimming pool. This facility has been open year round since 1987 according to the people residing in the Myers Park area. The country club at the golf course has also been burglarized. All of the buildings south of Jennings abut a large field covered in grass and weeds. The vegetation is approximately 4 feet high, providing potential cover for the thief.

On the south end of Monroe Street, only one building that was burglarized. This could possibly be the result of a fire station, located on the southeast corner of Magnolia and S. Monroe Street. With firefighters coming in and out of the station at irregular intervals, this could provide a sphere of informal social control as discussed by Newman (1971).

Discussion

Environmental Factors

Only two environmental factors are discussed: land-use and trees and their resulting impact on crime within the neighborhood.

Land-use

The major finding of this study deals with zoning issues. Initially it was assumed that either all land-use variables would be statistically significant or that none of them would be, but this did not prove to be the case. The final model had one independent variable that was statistically significant. This variable was SURPRFRT, which examined the land-use patterns in the front of the property under study. None of the theoretical models (Defensible Space, CPTED, nor Routine Activities Theory) nor any of the prior research indicate why this variable would be significant.

Quantitative analysis alone was insufficient to provide an answer. However, after applying qualitative analysis, the answer crystallizes. Figure 3 shows that different types of properties join each other on the left side.

In examining commercial burglaries a different pattern emerges. When commercial buildings are fronted by other commercial uses, the chance for burglary decreases.

These findings do not support the concept of mixed land-use Jacobs (1961) advocated and the city of Tallahassee utilized during this period. As can be seen from Figure 2, most of the Myers Park community is zoned for single, two, three, four, and multifamily settings (RM-1 and RM-3).

Work by Brantingham and Brantingham (1975) found that when blocks started switching from single-family to multifamily the rates of burglary increased. Greenberg et al. (1982) also discovered that homogeneous neighborhoods had lower rates of crime. These previous studies, along with the current research support land-use zoning placing different types of structure in different neighborhoods throughout the city. For example, one area would be zoned for commercial use, while a second section would be for multifamily units.

Trees

The writer did not believe that the variables SHRUB and TREE would be significant for commercial settings. Most commercial buildings did not have any trees or shrubberies located near their buildings. Most of the greenery was located between the parking lot and the road or between businesses.

Nasar's (1981) has the only study examining the impact of vegetation around businesses. He reported that the lack of vegetation resulted in higher burglary rates. The present work fails to support his conclusion. There is no relationship between shrubbery or trees and burglary in commercial settings.

There could be a simple explanation for the fact that trees are only significant for duplex residences Most single-family home owners will keep the shrubs and trees trimmed. They may not meet the criteria established for this research, but they are kept pruned. Most multifamily structures either have someone on staff keeping up the grounds or they have a company coming in to clean up the grounds, including trimming the trees and shrubbery. This same phenomena would be true of commercial establishments where someone would be responsible for the grounds (Clontz, 1997).

Accessibility

Accessibility deals with the ease with which people enter and exit the neighborhood or individual properties. The quantitative variables TYPFRNT, WINDOBS, and SEC3 deal with the accessibility to individual properties. Pedestrian and auto traffic also impact on the accessibility of the neighborhood and individual sites.


Window Obstructions

Only one study examined the effects of obstructed windows on commercial settings. Jeffery et al. (1987) examined convenience store robberies and found that obstructed windows increase the risk of robbery.

Here the idea is that window obstruction is a contributing factor in the difficulty or ease with which a potential offender or a crime in progress can be detected. This logic comes out of the work by Jacobs (1967) and Newman (1972). They believed that if people were able to observe their surroundings that the risk of crime would be reduced.

In this study, window obstructions was statistically significant in commercial establishments. This ties in with work done by Jeffery et al. (1987). When commercial establishments, including convenience stores cover their windows, the chance of detecting a crime occurring inside is reduced. Police and other citizens have a harder time seeing a crime in progress when the windows have signs, merchandise, and other items covering them.

Burglar Alarms

In 1973, Conklin and Bittner reported that burglar alarms where not an effective deterrent against breaking and enterings. Conversely, in two studies, Buck and Hakim (1991 and 1992b) reported that commercial properties were more suspectable to being burglarized if they did not have an alarm system.

Twenty-four of the 81 commercial properties studied had an alarm system installed. In this category, five crimes were reported to the police by the alarm system.

This analysis did not support Buck and Hakim (1991 and 1992b) contention for commercial properties.

Twenty-four of the commercial units had alarms installed. Surprisingly, the variable SEC3 was not statistically significant for commercial buildings. Most insurance agencies give businesses a discount on their rates for having a security system installed. This discount, combined with a greater attention to security, should have increased the presence of alarm systems. The lack of alarm systems (57) could be due to the type of commercial building. Commercial units catering to the public (pawn shops, medical supplies stores, insurance companies, etc.) would be more likely to install an alarm system. Repair shops and businesses not dependent on walk-in customers may not feel the need for expensive alarm systems.

Vehicular Traffic

Many studies tie the transportation system to crime. Some writers report major roads increase the crime rate (Buck and Hakim, 1991, 1992a, and 1992b; Greenberg et al., 1982; Hunter and Jeffery, 1991; Jeffery et al., 1987; Taylor and Gottfredson, 1986; White, 1990). Others argue that the shape of the intersection impacts on crime problem, with cul-de-sacs being the least accessible, "T" and "L" intersections being less accessible, and cross intersections being the most accessible (Geason and Wilson, 1989; Rubenstein, 1980; Taylor and Gottfredson, 1986).

The present study attempted to assess the impact of the transportation system on crime within the Myers Park neighborhood. To that end two variables (TRAFFIC and ROAD) were utilized. All of the previous studies examined the amount of traffic by the type of road (i.e., 2 or 4 lane, minor or major). The current research also used this type of measure (ROAD). This variable looked at the type of road the property was located on. Going a step further, this study determined the actual number of vehicles utilizing the roadway (TRAFFIC). Information for this variable was obtained from the City of Tallahassee traffic engineering section. Neither of these variables were statistically significant in the model when dealing with commercial burglary, therefore this writer concluded that the transportation system did not impact on the crime rates within this community as residents thought.

Regarding the cut-through traffic and the speeding problem reported by residents, this researcher took pains to observe traffic in the Myers Park area. As Figure 3 shows, Meridian Street allows people to enter and exit the area around the capitol. People use this street instead of South Monroe Street because there are no traffic signals located on Meridian Street. In fact, during the period that this study was conducted, Meridian Street did not even have a stop sign installed on it. Residents appear justified in complaining about speeding. Many vehicles observed appeared to be exceeding the posted speed limit on Meridian Street.

Scholars (Crowe, 1991; Leung, 1989; Swartz, 1985; Untermann, 1990) have pointed out there are other methods of dealing with the vehicular traffic instead of closing the street. One of the easiest ways is to have the police department enforce the speed limit. Another solution would be installing either stop signs or traffic lights on Meridian Street, forcing people to slow down. A third solution would be limiting turns onto residential streets during certain times of the day. Another restriction would make Meridian Street a one-way street. A fifth method would be to install speed-restricting devices, such as speed bumps, humps, and narrow sections in the roadway. Finally, on-street parking could be allowed, which forces traffic to slow down in the area. If parking is legalized on the street for speed control, angle parking is more effective than parallel parking.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this research supports some of the tenets of CPTED. Mixed land-use as called for by Jacobs (1967) and Newman (1972) did not receive any support. In fact, this study suggests that mixed land-use zoning be eliminated. Land-use is the only variable showing statistical significance. Newman's idea of surveillance did receive limited support, but only for commercial buildings did surveillance play a part in crime prevention.

Endnote

This is calculated using the formula X2 / (N + X2).


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Kenneth A. Clontz, Ph.D.
Department of Law Enforcement and Justice Administration
Western Illinois University
Macomb, IL 61455
Phone (309) 298-2251
Fax (309) 298-2251
E-Mail: Kenneth_Clontz@ccmail.wiu.edu