Looking to the past to understand today
– The spatio-temporal modelling of biogenic VOC emissions for the
St-Martin-de-Londres region (France) using ARC/INFO software
Gertrud Schaab & Roman Lenz
Institut f�r Angewandte Forschung, FH
N�rtingen, Schelmenwasen 4-8, D-72622 N�rtingen, schaab@fh-nuertingen.de
Contents
Abstract
Introduction
Area under investigation
Data preparation
Modelling tool
Results
Conclusions and outlook
References
Abstract.
Biogenic emissions of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) from plants play a major role in tropospheric ozone formation. Hence, reliable
estimates of VOC emissions from vegetation are needed as input to regional air chemistry
models. Both light and temperature influence the daily and seasonal course of biogenic
emissions. The use of the complex SORAM model fully integrated within the GIS-software
ARC/INFO enables us to model light and temperature in great spatial and temporal detail,
including the effects caused by terrain. Thus for a region in the South of France,
long-term changes in biogenic emissions due to plant succession as the result of land
abandonment are simulated over a period from 1946 to 1979. These historical simulations
over 34 years allow us to predict a trend some 20 years later for today’s biogenic
VOC emissions. The main topics of the paper are the data preparation within GIS, the
GIS-based modelling and the results concerning the long-term changes.
Introduction
The Mediterranean
area is recognized as a major source of tropospheric ozone (O3) in Europe. Here
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from plants play a major role in the ozone
formation due to the region’s richness in aromatic plants. But also because strong
irradiances and high temperatures are favouring photochemical reactions of nitrogen (Nox)
and VOC precursors (Seufert et al., 1997;
Versino, 1997).
For regional air
chemistry models, reliable estimates of biogenic emission fluxes are needed. While the EC
project BEMA (Biogenic Emissions in the Mediterranean Area, 1994–1997, see Seufert, 1997) focused on the investigation of the fate and amount of
VOCs from Mediterranean vegetation, the follow-up project VOCAMOD (Biogenic Volatile
Organic Compound Emission Modelling from European Forest Canopies, 1998-1999, see Steinbrecher et al., in print) aims to close the gap between the
emission rates screened at the branch level and the emission fluxes measured above the
forest canopy by considering chemical reactions and atmospheric turbulance as well as
effects caused by the 3-dimensional surface of the canopy or terrain.
Both light and
temperature influence the daily and seasonal course of biogenic VOC emissions. Based on
BEMA measurements, models originally developed in the United States have been modified to
account for differences in emission rates and driving parameters (Lenz et
al., 1997). The scaling approach described in this paper uses a geographical
information system (GIS) to model light and temperature in great spatial and temporal
detail by taking the 3-dimensional surface of the terrain into account.
Area under investigation
The idea to model
biogenic VOC emissions for the St-Martin-de-Londres region arose from a map (Debussche and H�tier, 1984) showing change in vegetation
formations for five different years between 1946 and 1979 (Fig. 2; the original eight classes and mixed areas have been
aggregated). The 187 km� area is located around the village St-Martin-de-Londres about 20
km NNW of Montpellier in the far South of France (Fig. 1). Today’s vegetation in the Mediterranean region is the
result of intensive anthropogenic deforestation since ancient times. Most of the forests
left are degraded due to man-made fires, grazing and selective timber collection (M�ller-Hohenstein, 1991; Seufert et al., 1995).
On one hand the Mediterranean area is still experiencing land degradation if not even
desertification through human mismanagement. On the other hand degraded canopies can
develop to forests via regeneration stages where land abandonment has taken place.
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In the area under
investigation, plant succession since 1946 has resulted from the discontinuation of
undergrowth timber cutting, sheep breeding and viticulture. This led to the spread of tree
species onto formerly cultivated land (Debussche et al., 1987).
However, the maps of Fig. 2 illustrate
that cultivated land decreased only slightly over time. While in 1946 69% of the area was
covered by garrigue (shrubland), in 1979 is was only 29%. Open woodland had its maximum
coverage in 1961 with 36% but decreased later because the more dense woodland formations
increased. In 1979 28% of the area was covered by mid-dense woodland and 8% by dense
woodland. There was no dense woodland in 1946.
Information about the
recent state of vegetation formations for the area is not available. However, by looking
at the development over a time period of 34 years in the past, a trend is given of the
likely impact of land use/cover changes on the amount of today’s VOC emissions
emitted by the (semi-)natural vegetation some 20 years later.

Data preparation
Fig. 3 summarises the approach
and thus the main data needed for the spatio-temporal modelling of biogenic VOC emissions
within a geographical information system (GIS). Emission factors (i.e. emission rates
under standard conditions of 30�C temperature and 1000 �mol m-2 s-1
incident photo–synthetically active radiation (PAR)) related to plant species have to
be corrected for their diurnal and seasonal course by light and/or temperature via
algorithms. To account for variability in the environmental parameters caused by the
3-dimensional surface, the modelling is based on a digital elevation model (DEM).
Distribution and coverage of the vegetation have to be known as well as the leaf area
index (LAI) describing the biomass.
The data
preparation was carried out using spreadsheet (Excel) and GIS (ARC/INFO) software (Fig. 4).
Other data preparation steps shown in Fig. 4 but not described so far cover input
data sets or parameters for running the SORAM model.
The maps showing
change of vegetation formations were digitised and aggregated to five classes (see Fig. 2). To relate emission factors to
vegetation formations the composition of species needs to be known. Here a map showing up
to five dominant species for the D�partement de l’H�rault at the beginning of the
70s (see Trabaud et al., 1973) was used to relate dominant species
to the vegetation formations of the five different years. This procedure is based on the
assumption that the occurrence of species is not changing as much in the long term. Herbs
were not classified because they are non-emitters. Cultivated land was not considered for
modelling biogenic VOCs due to the failure of realistically assigning cultivated plant
species for different years based solely on the one detailed species map from 1971/1973.
The results are coverages (vector data sets) for the five years carrying attributes of up
to two dominant species (see Fig. 5) as
well as of vegetation formations.
The vegetation
formation coverages were transformed into grids (raster data sets) setting LAI values
taken from the literature (Debussche et al., 1987) as
attributes.
Emission factors
(not shown in this paper; see Schaab et al., in preparation) for
isoprene, light and temperature driven monoterpenes and temperature dependent monoterpenes
based on projected leaf area were derived from emission factors based on dry weight and
specific leaf mass (SLM) values. Emission fluxes at standard conditions for all possible
species and vegetation formation combinations were calculated considering LAI and some
rules concerning the coverage. By relating the emission fluxes being processed within
Excel to the GIS coverages of species related to vegetation formations, grids for the five
different years and emission classes were generated.
For modelling air
temperature spatially climatological values from twelve stations throughout the
northeastern part of the D�partement de l’H�rault covering the period 1975-1996 (D�partement H�rault Conseil G�n�ral, 1975-1996) were
considered. The values of mean monthly minimum and maximum temperature of the day fixed to
the point coverage of the meteorological stations were distributed into the area by an
inverse distance interpolation plus taking the temperature lapse rate due to changes in
altitude (0.6�C per 100 m; Rambal, 1992) into account. The values
were stored in monthly grids. Here modelling was restricted to July which was considered
to be the month with maximum biomass. July 17th was determined to be the
average day of the month. The simulations for that day assume the same meteorological
situation for all five years, hence climatological values were applied.
Modelling tool
The model used is
the SOlar RAdiation Model called SORAM (see Fig. 6 or http://www.iaf.fh-nuertingen.de/iaf/forschung/soram/index.htm)
being fully integrated within the GIS software ARC/INFO (i.e. as an AML programming code)
and based on a DEM to account for shading and horizon effects within complex surfaces. For
detailed information see Schaab (1999).
Key features are: i) the determination of atmospheric transmissivity from routinely
measured meteorological data, ii) the anisotropic modelling of the diffuse component of
solar radiation, iii) the consideration of the
limitation of the horizon for direct and diffuse solar radiation, iv) the consideration of
the cloud coverage, and v) the modelling of light extinction within closed and homogeneous
canopies by a dynamic single layer model. The SORAM model has several noteworthy
strengths: The model does not require sequential measurements. The necessary input is
generally available. Thus it is not restricted to certain test sites or days. Because of
its realization as a physically-based model it can be applied to different scales (canopy
stand, landscape level). Also, it has many possible uses besides the up-scaling of
biogenic VOCs.
The model has already shown its usefulness for scaling up
monoterpenes from the pine/oak forest St. Quercio (Castelporziano, Italy) (see Schaab et al., 1999). The flowchart in Fig. 7 illustrates the modelling steps taken at the land–scape
level. Solar irradiance incident on the surface is
simulated in high complexity for both direct and diffuse solar radiation (see Schaab et al., 1998). Light extinction is modelled
according to the sun/shade model (de Pury
and Farquhar, 1997) which was extended to the three dimensions of space.
Being a single layer model shaded and sunlit leaves are nevertheless treated separately by
dynamically distinguishing between sunlit and shaded canopy as a function of solar
position.
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Temperature is modelled considering a sinusoidal diurnal
course. Mean differences between maximum air temperature and maximum surface temperature
derived for the vegetation formations from remote sensing data (Rambal
et al., 1985) are taken into account to get closer to surface temperature.
Further corrections are made based on the empirical corrections of air temperature of the
mountain microclimate simulator (MTCLIM; see Running et al., 1987).
This makes it possible to differentiate spatially between slopes receiving different
radiant energy input as well as to adjust for different energy exchange characteristics.
Since the vegetation is treated within a single layer model, vertical temperature
modifications within the vegetation canopy are left unconsidered.
Light and temperature are simulated spatially for every time
step. Dependent on the state of the two parameters the biogenic VOC emissions are modelled
in its diurnal course correcting isoprene as well as the light and temperature dependent
monoterpenes by an algorithm developed by Guenther (Guenther at
al., 1993) and those monoterpenes dependent on temperature only by an algorithm
developed by Tingey (Tingey et al., 1980).
Results
For a thorough
discussion of the emission modelling results see Schaab et al. (in
preparation). Here only effects caused by the spatial
modelling approach are shown. The change in biogenic VOC emissions due to land use/cover
changes between 1946 and 1979 is presented as well as a trend given for today’s
emissions.
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The images of the third column in Fig. 8 present the relative differences in biogenic VOC fluxes at
standard conditions due to the species’ distribution within the terrain. To the left
the modelling situation of light and temperature is shown for the 17th of July
at 14:30 TST (true solar time) clearly revealing the influence of the terrain. While the
pattern of irradiance incident on the surface can be noticed in the spatial distribution
of air temperature, the influence of LAI is visible in the images of surface temperature,
PAR striking a sunlit leaf as well as PAR striking a shaded leaf. The difference images at
the very right were derived by running the model twice: i) considering the 3-dimensional
surface of the terrain and ii) applying a flat surface with the regional average
elevation, thus emphasising effects caused by the terrain. For isoprene and light and
temperature driven monoterpenes, shadows cast by the terrain cause greatest deviations.
Fig. 9:
Change in the daily amount (July) of biogenic emissions (grouped by biogenic VOC class and
vegetation formation) - Region St-Martin-de-Londres 1946-1979 |
Fig. 9 presents the daily amount of emissions from the
St-Martin-de-Londres region modelled for July of each of the five different years.
Differences in the contribution of compounds emitted from the garrigue formation (mainly
isoprene but also monoterpenes driven by temperature only) compared to the three forest
formations (light and temperature dependent monoterpenes form the largest portion) are
obviously due to the dominant species related to the vegetation formations. For all five
years the group of light end temperature driven monoterpenes yielded the highest figures.
Up to 1961 these are mainly due to the open woodland formation, but already in 1971 the
formation of mid-dense woodlands has taken over. Only in 1946 did the garrigue formation
type contribute a con–siderable amount to total emissions.
The daily amounts of biogenic VOCs in July can also be shown
grouped only by compound classes (see filled symbols in Fig. 10). Values derived for five different years over an temporal
extent of 34 years enable prediction of today’s emissions 20 years later than the
most recent available map. The daily amount of temperature driven monoterpenes has not
changed much over time. The amount of isoprene has increased steadily with emissions three
times higher in 1979 than in 1946. Light and temperature driven monoterpenes show a far
stronger increase with a factor of 5.2. Looking at the total biogenic VOC emissions from
the region St-Martin-de-Londres for 1979, the daily amount increased by a factor of 4.0
compared with 1946. Modelling biogenic VOC emissions spatially and temporally over a full
summer day indicates a factor of 4.4 for 1999 compared with 1946, some 53 years ago. When
simply averaging total emission fluxes at standard conditions for the projected area under
investigation (see open symbols) the trend is predicting a factor of 5.8.
Fig. 10: Change in the daily amount
(July) of biogenic VOC emissions 1946-1979 and trend for 1999 (grouped by biogenic VOC
class) - Region St- Martin-de-Londres |
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Conclusions
and outlook
Because of uncertainties already related to the data
input (e.g. emission factors, species distribution) relative rather than absolute results
should be emphasised. When predicting change in potential biogenic emissions, the
averaging of emission fluxes at standard conditions resulted in an over-estimation
compared to a spatially and temporally differentiating modelling based on a digital
terrain model. The predicted 4.4-fold increase can serve as a guide to the likely impact
of plant succession on total biogenic VOC emissions for the garrigue-type landcover in the
Mediterranean area.
SORAM has proven to be very useful for scaling up
biogenic VOCs at the landscape levelbut its use is not restricted VOC emissions. Because
solar radiation a important driving variable many exchange processes between earths
surface and atmosphere (e.g. carbonnutrient water cycles) of generalphysically-based
approach being independent sequential measurementsSORAM also seems valuable tool assessing
spatial differences in other ecosystem processes.
Such a complex modelling task as the scaling up of
biogenic VOC emissions asks for an evaluation of GIS as the appropriate environment.
Concerning the preparation of the spatial data inputs a GIS can be judged to be a very
convenient instrument. As a drawback, the limited calculation efficiency within complex
simulations has to be mentioned. While developing SORAM, benefits were gained from the
user-friendly programming as well as the integrated data capture, management, analysis,
modelling and visualisation within the ARC/INFO system. Now with a powerful model at hand,
a SORAM version in a compiled programming code would offer advantages in processing speed
and independence from a particular GIS platform. Also, the linking of SORAM with other
models that require the spatio-temporal distribution of solar radiation would thus be
simplified. However, interfaces with the most common GIS software should be supported to
facilitate the preparation of data inputs and a further processing of the results.
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Acknowledgements
We like to thank Rainer Steinbrecher (IFU, Garmisch) for
contributing emission factors, Bernard Lacaze (CRENAM-CNRS, St-Etienne) for relating plant
species to the vegetation formations, the CNRS Montpellier (MELODY core project) for
supplying us with the DEM data and the CEC for funding the VOCAMOD project
(ENVA-CT97-0424).
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