Eric Heikkila and Tara Clapp
In this paper we introduce the concept of the Information Footpath and describe the development of an Information Footpath for South Central Los Angeles. An Information Footpath is community-oriented, offers a detailed level of data, and has a map-oriented, user-friendly interface. An Information Footpath is also set within the social framework of a community. We argue that the Information Footpath concept offers the integration of accessibility and usefulness necessary for local economic development.
Accordingly, many projects have been developed in the interest of information equity which focus on the availability of computers and the connection to the Internet. However, the superhighway metaphor focuses attention on the quantity of information as if information were a commodity; the usefulness of information to particular communities is less uniform than that of a physical commodity like bricks or lettuce. Once access to the superhighway is gained, the information flows available may not meet the needs of inner city communities whose purposes and opportunities may differ substantially from the interests of other information users and developers.
Some projects do focus on making content appropriate to new and existing users (Library of Congress 1995; NIIAC 1996; Peirce and Marshall 1996). A few more explicitly focus on developing new information for use by local communities. For example, projects exist where Internet technology is used to identify and help solve safety problems in particular communities (Rhodes and Walden 1997), or where access is addressed at the same time as community-building (Stoecker 1997).
An Information Footpath fits in this third category, integrating attention to both accessibility and usefulness, with the intent of promoting community and economic development. Building on Heikkila and Banerjee (1994), an Information Footpath is an information system that is oriented to the local community, has detailed and current data coverage and has a readily accessible map-oriented, user-friendly interface. An Information Footpath looks to the local community for guidance and supports local data maintenance and development.
The purpose of this paper is to present the Information Footpath concept as a technical innovation and as an integrated approach to the central challenges of accessibility and usefulness to local communities. We will briefly review the role of information technologies in economic development and the importance of equitable access to economic, social and political participation. We will then set the Information Footpath in the context of other efforts to address the accessibility and usefulness of information technologies. Next, we will describe the development of an Information Footpath through three successive prototypes for South Central Los Angeles, the last of which is being handed off to a community organization for use and further development. Our conclusions will review the lessons learned from the first Information Footpath and discuss next steps. Community involvement in an Information Footpath would be key to its long-term usefulness and therefore to its success.
The meaning of changes made possible through the use of information technology for spatial regions, including inner cities, is the subject of much speculation. Inner city areas have resource endowments in both location and labor. While spatial proximity is relevant to some information-related investments and to urban concentrations of expertise, proximity does not necessarily translate into economic advantages for inner city residents. New labor markets are intensely competitive and firms have favored suburban middle class labor; for one thing, inner city communities have much lower rates of computer ownership and computer literacy. Investments would be required to turn the existing labor and locational resources of the inner city into competitive advantages with a strategic fit in the information economy (Malecki 1991; Amirahmadi and Wallace 1995).
Many writers agree that the ability to use information technologies to transform existing resources into realized economic opportunities depends on: access to information technologies, level of training in their use, the availability of appropriate information, creativity and innovation (Malecki 1991; Amirahmadi and Wallace 1995). Interventions can affect access and training and to an extent can affect the availability of appropriate information.
Access and usefulness are interrelated terms; for example user- friendliness may help to make software accessible (by reducing training needs) as well as making the information content more useful (by facilitating the use of data). 'Accessibility' refers to the range of attributes, from physical connection to user-friendly software, required to connect a community to new information technologies. 'Usefulness' describes the relevance of the information and software available to the purposes of the user.
The utilization of new information technologies has required economic, technical and organizational capacity which has been beyond the reach of many groups; lack of these capacities has formed a barrier to access to new political, economic and social arenas (Jacobs 1989; Klosterman 1992). Early information technologies were both difficult to use and all required large scale investment. Over time, the relative price of information systems and information transfer has been diminishing. Recent developments have also emphasized flexibility in initial investment where possible. This technological decentralization is potentially empowering (Chrisman 1991). While the capacity to access information technologies is now much more broadly held and applications are becoming easier to use, more effort is required to empower new technology users with the ability to access and manipulate data (Sawicki and Craig 1996).
At the same time, basic access is still a problem for many communities. There are strong arguments that planners should take a role in promoting greater equity in access to the political and economic processes and outcomes. The accessibility of new technologies has been linked by planners to issues of access to new forms of political and economic participation (Jacobs 1989; Klosterman 1992). Additionally, many groups lack the sophistication to transform data into policy- relevant information. Planners have also advocated roles as providers of information services for the information poor (Klosterman 1992; Sawicki and Craig 1996). Communities and government agencies at all levels have been wrestling with the problem of how to make information technology useful and available to local communities.
The federal government has recognized the importance of information technologies to the national economy and to local communities, and has developed programs and initiatives to address these issues. Federal efforts include the promotion of public data availability on the Internet; this may substantially reduce the cost of acquiring data. Other levels of government may be persuaded to follow suit. At the same time, the federal government is investigating proprietary rights and other market institutions on the Internet; the immediate benefits of this will more likely go to information-producers than information-consumers (NIIAC 1995; Perritt 1994).
Federal efforts to promote accessibility have focussed on the 'universal service' concept, which echoes the policy precedent set in the 1930s when rural telephone service was subsidized. Currently, Ôuniversal serviceÕ is used to refer to policies that assist communities through technical information, advisory support and a limited set of subsidies. The term is no longer used to refer to the large scale regulation and subsidization adopted in the early days of telephone service. The uses and levels of service of new information technologies are more variable and not usefully conceived as a utility service (OTA 1990; NIIAC 1995; NIIAC 1996; Perritt 1994; U.S. Information Infrastructure Task Force 1993). 'Universal service' emphasizes the availability of access to new information technologies for everyone.
Federal efforts focus on the connection of schools, community centers and libraries. For example, the KickStart program encourages communities to organize their own funding to implement the goal of connecting their schools, community centers and libraries to the Internet. The federal program primarily provides advice, emphasizing the importance of forging partnerships between the public, private, and third sectors. Limited federal Information Infrastructure funding has been awarded to projects which serve as demonstrations of these principles and priorities. The case studies which have been documented focus primarily on connection, although curricular development and content enrichment are important future initiatives (Library of Congress 1995; NIIAC 1996; NTIA 1996).
Some private sector groups, particularly those in the information industry, have been active in reducing barriers to accessibility. Corporations have supported local government, community and NGO initiatives through demonstrations, training, in-kind donations and through programming assistance (Latamore 1996; Library of Congress 1995; NIIAC 1996).
Many communities have developed networks and approaches that focus on physical accessibility and user training. Civic networks-- or freenets-- have been implemented; most of these have depended on local university and/or local government support to various degrees, often with private sector assistance. The connection of schools, libraries and educational services has been a priority for community efforts, although some smaller centers such as Blacksburg attempt to connect everyone in the community. Other electronic village efforts in association with public housing projects have focused on user training with government subsidization (Library of Congress 1995; NIIAC 1996; Pierce and Marshall 1996).
A survey of the literature and the Web yielded far fewer projects which attempted to directly address the issue of usefulness or suitability of content for inner city or low income users or potential users. Content was a prime consideration in curriculum projects for education, but most community projects focused on connectivity, with user training as the focus of most community economic development projects.
An Information Footpath addresses both accessibility and usefulness; the development of social and organizational capacity is vital to the achievement of both these goals. Accessibility is addressed through the encouragement of connectivity, through community training and communication, and through innovative user-friendly software. Usefulness is addressed through locally relevant, detailed content, which the users help to maintain and develop in accordance with their purposes. The design of an Information Footpath is flexible to allow future collaborative development.
The initial definition of an Information Footpath focused on its aspects as a technical tool (Heikkila and Banerjee 1994). The concept has since been broadened to set the tool in a social context - to include human interaction with the tool as part of the 'information system.' An Information Footpath is now defined as an information system that:
- is oriented to local community in design, content and social context;From a technical standpoint, the main design challenges were: to resolve the tension between ease of use and sophistication of use, to ensure enough flexibility to suit diverse individual purposes, and to ensure ease of access and maintenance. Particularly with spatial data, simplicity of use often requires complexity of design. Much of the information of interest in local economic development is spatially organized, and yet spatially referenced software and information have been some of the most difficult technologies to use. A university can assemble resources and expertise to develop new technologies for diffusion to the inner city, as shown in the model in Figure 1.
- has data coverage that is intensive, extensive and current; and,
- has a readily accessible map-oriented user-friendly interface.
An Information Footpath should be sufficiently flexible to accommodate a wide range of users within the community. 'Network externalities' are defined as benefits accruing through individual network participation to the entire set of individuals involved in the network (Bolton 1997). To take full advantage of the potential 'network externalities' for broad-based local community development, the information system could not focus exclusively on information of interest to entrepreneurs, to community agencies or to any subset of the community. 'Network externalities' of an Information Footpath may include increased access to improved information, strengthening of social networks and a greater attachment to the local community (Bolton 1997). Similarly, concerns with broad-based usefulness and sustainability inform the criteria of ease of access and maintenance.
South Central Los Angeles has been the geographic focus of the efforts to develop a working model of an Information Footpath. Since 1993, three successive versions have been completed. The first prototype was completed in 1993, with a focus on user-friendliness in spatial data manipulation. The second version, completed in 1996, incorporated a move to the World Wide Web to solve maintenance problems and ease physical access. The third version will be launched in mid-1997. Ownership of the Information Footpath for South Central Los Angeles will be transferred to community institutions, and this version will be developed further under community auspices. The university will continue to provide active support.
The first prototype was a stand-alone information system with four components, as shown in Figure 2. In this prototype, user interface and navigation was accomplished through a combination of VisualBasic buttons and menus. Each endpoint on the user's menu-based decision tree corresponded to a specific subroutine in MapBasic, which in turn activated a sequence of instructions in the MapInfo geographic information system (GIS). This layering of programs allowed the novice user to handle a GIS. A typical routine would produce a thematic map of the data requested by the user. For example, a map could be produced showing Rebuild Los Angeles points of interest, or chloropleth maps were produced for census data.
In the first prototype, ease of use was approached through the use of a simple interface, and flexible movement throughout the menu range. While the choices led to preprogrammed endpoints, as many combinations as possible were provided in data display. This approach was felt to be the most appropriate to the initial focus on the the facilitation of entrepreneurship at a local level.
The intended users of an Information Footpath would be current and potential residents, current and potential businesses and community service agencies; the set of users envisioned would be inclusive of all individuals and organizations involved with the focus community. The data installed in the first prototype made it most likely to have an initial appeal to current and potential businesses. Businesses were seen as priority users in the South Central Los Angeles context.
The first prototype was installed at two sites in South Central Los Angeles, and evaluated for its usefulness to local entrepreneurs. One site provided financial services and business counselling to residents and businesses. Much of its work focused on loan assistance, either direct provision or assistance in preparing loan applications. The other site provided a variety of training programs geared to fostering business expansion and job creation in the region; the first prototype was incorporated into their Entrepreneur Program and users were surveyed. Informal evaluations of the first prototype in these two settings were generally positive as to the Information Footpath concept, and recommended further development of the technical capacity, the range of information available, and physical accessibility.
The first prototype produced 'live maps from dead data,' meaning that maps were regenerated each time based on the user- selected dataset. All queries generated maps that were as current as the dataset on the system. The difficulty of data maintenance in the first prototype was substantial due to the stand-alone nature of the system. Of course, data currency and maintenance is of critical importance to any tool intended to support meaningful decision-making regarding economic development.
Figure 2: Information Footpath Technical Development | |||
Prototype Version | First Prototype: Live Maps from Dead Data |
Second Version: Live Links to Dead Maps |
Current Version: Live Links to Live Maps |
Interface | VisualBasic | HTML | HTML |
Support | MapBasic | HTML | VisualBasic |
GIS Software | MapInfo | MapBasic | MapObjects |
Hardware | 486 PC | WebServer | WebServer (NT) |
Data Installed | Census RLA Points of Interest |
Business Census |
Base Map Business Census City Parcel Data |
The second prototype used a system of 'live links to dead maps.' This means that a collection of maps corresponding to all possible queries was pre-generated and stored as images. There are many examples of this type currently available on the Web. The disadvantage of this system is that all of the 'dead' maps must be updated and replaced each time the underlying dataset is revised.
For the third version, additional funding had been secured, which allowed the development of an Information Footpath which used 'live links to live maps from live data.' In this version, for each user the program generates new maps which are as current as the database. The dataset is updated either by the original providers of the data or through the addition or maintenance of data from community sources.
In the third version, user interface and navigation is accomplished through a normal Web interface. The HTML code interacts with support programming written in VisualBasic code. MapObjects programming is embedded in the VisualBasic code (see Figure 2). The MapObjects software provides GIS functionality such as map production, map navigation and reports of tabular data. The programming allows future users to initiate the incorporation of new data as well as linkages to other data sources.
Users have substantial flexibility in designing queries, since the maps are 'live.' For example, a user may choose a 'WalkAbout,' in which she chooses a theme such as 'banks' or 'libraries' or both, and a map is produced with these features highlighted. This kind of search is limited spatially by manipulating the map through 'pan' and 'zoom,' and the on-screen display is scale-dependent so that the graphics are legible. The user can query the highlighted points, and will receive an on-screen identification of the feature. The third version also supports text-based searches, through an on-screen form called 'Where Is?' Tabular data are also reported in response to this kind of query, usually including organization names, addresses, and contacts.
The third version incorporates more data than the prior two versions. In addition to census data and business information, a more graphically sophisticated base map has been added as well as parcel data obtained from the City of Los Angeles. However, much of the specific local data is not easily available in digital form; the 'packaged' data which are readily available is insufficient for the potential uses of the Information Footpath. The programming allows for ease of data maintenance, including the initiation of data updates by Web-based users, as well as easily supported links to local sites, and new categories of data. The content of the third version will be enhanced through use and feedback; this data plan forms part of the need to mesh the Information Footpath with the community social and organizational networks. Data updates initiated by users will be an important aspect of the 'network benefits' available to the group of users as a whole; the data will be 'live.'
The third version of the Information Footpath for South Central Los Angeles is technically capable of serving as a tool for local community economic development. The next step is the handoff of the technically innovative Information Footpath tool to the local community who will use, sustain and enhance it.
Conceptually, an Information Footpath is in part a transfer of technology to an inner city community. The model shown in Figure 4 illustrates the role of organizations in accomplishing this transfer of technology accompanied by technical support, and the role of users in using and maintaining the data. In Figure 4, the 'organizational capacity' first includes the university in concert with its partners; a community based group such as the Advisory Council and its partners would take over this role.
Initially, a strong relationship developed between the Information Footpaths project and a local user organization called the Inner City Computer Society (ICCS) during the testing of the first prototype. The mission of ICCS is to increase the use and usefulness of computers in inner city Los Angeles through a network of inner city residents at varying levels of technical expertise. The assistance of ICCS has been invaluable in connecting this Information Footpath project to community social networks.
With the assistance of ICCS, an Information Footpath Advisory Council was established to guide the continued development and use of the Information Footpath technology. An initial invitation to participate on the Advisory Council was extended to a group of people selected on the basis of their connection to a diverse set of other networks: computer users, local media, local government, service organizations and businesses. About half of those initially contacted have agreed to serve on the Information Footpath Community Advisory Council.
From the first meeting of the Advisory Council, the generic tasks of the Council have been clear. The Council decided that its primary tasks involved the development of content, the encouragement of access, and a maintenance plan. For this Advisory Board, the development of a vision to guide decisions about their Information Footpath is an ongoing organic process, evolving along with the identity of the group. Decisions as to tasks and priorities as well as to relationships with other organizations have come out of prolonged discussions. While the issues of content, access and maintenance are interrelated in practice due to the importance of community involvement in all three, they will be discussed separately.
Issues of maintenance have been a priority for this Advisory Council. The transfer of the Information Footpath technology takes place without a funding mechanism in place to handle the physical home of the technology and data maintenance and enhancement tasks. The first concern of the Council has been to find a physical home for the Information Footpath technology in the community.
An Information Footpath could be housed within the physical computer resources of a university; in this case it was felt that a physical home for the database in the community would increase the community sense of ownership of the technology. A coalition of appropriate community organizations might accomplish the goal of technical support and maintenance in another community.
Working with the university, the Advisory Council located a partner organization in the community, the Electronic Citizenship Task Force. The Task Force is a citizen group organized and supported by the Eighth Council District of the City of Los Angeles. The Task Force offers a synergistic partnership for this Information Footpath project. First, the stability and resources in this partnership will ease the task of maintaining the Advisory Council organization itself. And second, the Task Force is itself already involved in encouraging the connection of community members and organizations to the Web and in facilitating local electronic dialogue, with a focus on local government services. This partnership enhances the role that the Information Footpath tool and organization can play directly in expanding community opportunities for physical access and computer training.
Another aspect of maintenance that is important to the Council is the support of the physical infrastructure and of the database maintenance tasks. This will require a financial strategy to support the Information Footpath. The Council hopes to make this Information Footpath self-supporting. The mechanisms which have been suggested include memberships or subscriptions for businesses who use the Information Footpath for marketing. Volunteer effort will continue to be important, as well as further community involvement. Many of the users and data sources are non-profit or community service organizations; these members will be able to contribute through volunteer data-gathering, in many cases through programs which train and involve youth.
For this Advisory Council, 'access' includes marketing and publicity as well as physical computer connection and training for community members. Marketing and publicity are vital for the Information Footpath to attract an initial set of users in the community. The marketing strategy will require partnership with other community organizations as well as the activities normally associated with the term. The partnership with the Electronic Citizenship Task Force has been helpful; this organization is relatively well-established and has some staff services available. The 'grapevine' will be an important part of marketing this Information Footpath, as will media events.
Initial content development and data maintenance will be closely linked to the need to publicize the Information Footpath widely in the community. Initially, there will be an effort to involve youth in a program of content development. There may also be internships for youth interested in furthering their research and computer skills, at the same time building the content of the Information Footpath. Links to local homepages will be a large part of initial content enhancement. For businesses, this will be a marketing opportunity. Web page development itself could be a training opportunity for schools, and a small business opportunity in helping local businesses enhance their web-based marketing.
Additionally, this Board has emphasized the importance of local and culturally relevant content; one member described the need to "get the funk out on the Web." This feedback has been influential in the design of several features in the third version, including the ease with which weblinks can be initiated. The Board members may enhance the participatory features of the Information Footpath to include spatially referenced 'tagging' whereby users can attach links to sites on the map, as well as 'comment boards,' to allow for public feedback on the information available. Content as well as programming enhancement will allow different kinds of publicity for cultural events, such as homepages that provide audio and video information. Getting the 'funk' into the Information Footpath should broaden its appeal, in turn increasing its usefulness.
The Advisory Council of an Information Footpath has a very important role in determining the character of an Information Footpath; this flexibility to community interest, purposes and character is an important part of the difference that distinguishes this technical solution in social terms.
As of the writing of this paper, the handoff of the Information Footpath for South Central Los Angeles has just been completed. Ownership of this Information Footpath version is transferred to the Advisory Council as of April 29th, 1997, the fifth anniversary of the civil disturbances in Los Angeles. The university will continue to be involved as a partner and a member of the Advisory Council in the development and expansion of this version and the development of other Information Footpaths for other communities.
Evaluation of the technical artifact which we transferred to the community will be possible only in the broadest sense. Alterations and enhancements by the Advisory Council are planned to begin immediately. Our emphasis in evaluation will not be of the technical artifact, but of the combination of functions and community organization in furthering the goals of accessibility and usefulness.
At this early stage, the evaluation strategy is informal. Measures to evaluate the Information Footpath for South Central Los Angeles include the tracking of usage and whether or not it generates enough community interest and commitment to sustain itself over time.
We are interested in extending the Information Footpath both vertically and horizontally. A vertical extension refers to a 'deepening' of the Information Footpath through reprogramming and the addition of variables and data for the same geographic location. The Advisory Council of the Information Footpath for South Central Los Angeles has taken over the responsibility for vertical extensions of this version. The priorities of the Advisory Council are to add more local data, to connect to existing cultural information sources and to extend programming which enables user participation.
A horizontal extension would be an application of the Information Footpath model to new geographic areas. For example, 'clones' of the existing prototype could be developed for the proposed empowerment zones in Los Angeles or in inner city locations in other cities with minimal programming effort. The acquisition of data for each zone would be a major task. The possibility of extending the Information Footpath to other communities is in part an evaluation of its potential by those communities; there would have to be interest on the part of other communities in supporting an Information Footpath.
Community involvement with an Information Footpath is critical. Initially, local communities would have to volunteer to be Information Footpath sites, as their assistance with data gathering efforts would be indispensable. Second, greater use of an Information Footpath leads to greater usefulness, which then in turn may help to broaden use. The initial economic sustainability of an Information Footpath may depend on its use as a marketing tool, which would enhance its local economic development potential. Its usefulness in this capacity depends on the extent to which it attracts users, which in turn contributes to data-maintenance. Community involvement would be indispensable to initiating and sustaining this Ôvirtuous cycle.Õ In our experience, community involvement begins with an evaluation of the potential usefulness of an Information Footpath for this community; a recognition of need and an imagination of potential.
We would like to thank Mark Sorenson and Danielle Scarfe of the Geographic Planning Collaborative, Inc. (GPCI) and Greg Rossel for invaluable technical assistance and innovative software. For funding and support, we would like to thank Rebuild Los Angeles, the City of Los Angeles Community Development Department and the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development.
We would also like to thank our colleagues at the University of Southern California who have contributed special effort to the project in its various stages: Tridib Banerjee, Ed Blakely, Ed De Young, Falan Guan, Stefanus Hadi, Ed Mooney, Hyeon Park, Sandra Roussel, Jeng-Ying Shieh, Li Wang, John Wilson, Jingying Wu and Woosuk Zhee.
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