The purpose of this exploratory study is to empirically test
the assumptions of Crime Prevention through Environmental Design
(CPTED) on the crime of burglary. Prior burglary studies suggest
that the physical environment does impact on crime rates. This
work examines residential burglary, using both quantitative and
qualitative research methods. It then takes the research one
step further by dividing residential burglaries into the
categories of single-family, duplex, and multifamily units.
A major finding of this research is that mixed land-use contributes to the risk of burglary. This finding was upheld by three of the equations. Accessibility was also discovered to be significant in one model. Accessibility, as a category, examined pedestrian and automobile traffic, types of front doors, and whether the windows were obstructed by foliage or other objects.
A substantial body of research links the physical
environment with spatial variations in crime. The present
exploratory study examines the impact of the physical environment
on individual crime sites. This micro-level research utilizes
Jeffery's Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED)
as the theoretical basis for examination. The reason for using
this particular theory is presented below.
CPTED has two main tenets. First, crime and criminal
behavior is a product of the interaction between people and the
physical environment. Second, crime sites require analysis,
using both qualitative and quantitative methodologies, as to
their physical characteristics that in turn could be altered to
prevent future crimes (Hunter, 1990; Jeffery, 1990; Jeffery,
1992).
Consequently, the present study attempts to expand our
knowledge by examining the crime of residential burglary. While
most studies treat residential burglary as a single entity, this
research examines residential burglary by separating it into its
component parts of single-family burglaries, duplex burglaries,
and multifamily burglaries. Additionally, this study examines
the data for possible interactions between the various
independent variables. A general working hypothesis proposes
that the residential burglary patterns in Tallahassee, FL will
not be uniformly distributed. Certain sites will have a higher
probability of having an incidence of burglary than other sites
given the relevant environmental factors (Brantingham and
Brantingham, 1978; D'Alessio and Stolzenberg, 1990).
This study was conducted in Tallahassee, the capital city of
Florida. Tallahassee is home to two major universities and a
large community college. The city of Tallahassee occupies
approximately 59-square-miles, and according to the 1990 census
over 127,000 people reside within this area.
The Myers Park neighborhood lies within the Tallahassee city
limits. This locale provides the site for the present study.
The Myers Park residences are bounded to the north by Myers Park
(hence the neighborhood's name) and Seaboard Coast Railroad. To
the east lies the Capital City Country Club and Country Club
Drive, while the western border of the neighborhood is defined by
South Monroe Street. To the south, the area is bounded by
Magnolia Drive.
Directly north of Myers Park lies Tallahassee's downtown
district and Apalachee Parkway. The downtown area between South
Monroe Street and the city park is predominantly occupied by
state government buildings and offices. Apalachee Parkway, which
borders the park on the north side, is a major four-lane traffic
corridor, and is the site of a major commercial strip with
motels, restaurants, and a shopping mall. To the east of the
Myers Park neighborhood is a predominantly middle-class
residential neighborhood. The western border is South Monroe
Street, another major four-lane traffic corridor in the city of
Tallahassee. Monroe Street is the only street allowing motorists
to travel through the city in a north to south direction without
changing routes. South Monroe Street is also a commercial
corridor. Immediately south of the Myers Park neighborhood is an
area with both public and subsidized rental housing.
There is a marked contrast within the neighborhood between
the homes located east of Meridian Street and those located west
of Meridian Street. Not only does Meridian Street allow people
to travel into and out of the capital area, but it also separates
the Myers Park neighborhood into two separate types of
residences. Moderate to expensive housing is located between
Meridian Street and Golf Terrace Drive. Low to moderate cost
housing is found between Meridian Street and South Monroe Street.
Data for this study were obtained from four sources. First,
information on the crime of burglary was gathered from the
Tallahassee Police Department and the Leon County Sheriff's
Office. This information details area offenses from January 1,
1988 until December 31, 1991. Within this time frame, 164 cases
of burglary in the Myers Park district were reported to law
enforcement officials.
The second source of information was gathered on each of the
308 pieces of property within the Myers Park neighborhood through
on-site surveys.
Additional figures concerning the traffic count for the
roads in the Myers Park area were obtained from the city of
Tallahassee's Traffic Engineering section. These figures were
obtained by counting the number of vehicles passing over a
counter, placed in the roadway, within a 24 hour period. Traffic
counts were taken over several days and the figures were averaged
to produce the numbers used in this study.
Lastly, data on ownership and number of years that the
property has been occupied were taken from the Polk 1992
Tallahassee City Directory. Information for this directory is
obtained by either surveys, telephone, or personal interviews
with the residents. In addition, the Polk Tallahassee City
Directory contains the street address, spouse's name, childrens'
names, employers, and the home telephone number of the residents.
A number of terms used in this study require precise
definition. First the definition of burglary is given. Even
though the data was collected by the Tallahassee police
department, the Records division provided the UCR definition of
burglary. Accordingly, this study uses that definition, which is
the unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or a theft.
The next set of terms to be defined are single-family
residences, duplexes, multifamily residences, and commercial
properties. "Single-family" residences are designed to house
only one family. "Duplexes" are dwellings designed to house two
separate families in different living quarters. "Multifamily
residences or apartments" are buildings containing three or more
individual dwelling units.
Most people use the words road, street, and highway
interchangeably. For this research, the terms "major roads,"
"collector roads," and "local or minor roads" are used. Each of
these words has a specific meaning. A "major road" uses four or
more travel lanes to move large quantities of traffic.
"Collector roads" collect traffic from the local roads and feed
it into the major roads. These collector roads can have two or
more travel lanes. "Minor or local roads" provide access to
individual properties in a residential neighborhood (Leung,
1989).
Each of the dependent variables measures the number of
burglaries reported to law enforcement officials that occurred at
single-family units (n=71), duplexes (n=27), and multifamily
units (n=20).
Thirty-four independent variables are utilized in this
study. Each variable has been used in prior research with the
exceptions of CONSTRUC, SCRFRTDR, TRAFFIC, and YRSRES. The
researcher believed that the type of construction (CONSTRUC) used
in the building would interact with the general exterior
appearance of the structure. Masonry structures are easier to
maintain than buildings built out of wood. Wooden buildings have
to be painted at regular intervals to maintain the exterior
appearance. Units with separate screen doors (SCRFRTDR) could
have a lower rate of burglary, provided the occupant locks the
screen door. This would cause the thief to spend time opening
two doors, instead of one. Prior studies have used the type of
road in order to get an idea about vehicular traffic. This
present work also examines the roadways (ROAD), in order to be
consistent with previous studies. In addition, this study also
obtained the traffic count (TRAFFIC) from the city. Such
information allows the researcher to know the number of vehicles
using the streets in each 24-hour period. Finally, the number of
years that the property has been occupied (YRSRES) is recorded.
From this the researcher can determine the rate at which people
are moving into and out of the neighborhood. Areas with a high
population turnover should be more susceptible to burglary,
because people cannot be certain who their neighbors are, or even
if an individual belongs in the neighborhood.
Logistic regression was employed in this study. Several
reasons prompted this choice. First, logistic regression
requires a dichotomized dependent variable. All the dependent
variables in this study are dichotomized. Second, this
statistical technique handles both continuous variables and
categorical variables within the same equation. Most of the
independent variables used in this research are measured at the
nominal or ordinal level. Finally, logistic regression can test
for interaction effects. In this research, the variables will be
tested for interaction effects, something prior CPTED studies
have failed to do. One of the innovations of the present study
is this examination of the data for such interaction effects
(Johnston, 1978; Noruis, 1990; Wrigley, 1976).
Besides the statistical analysis conducted in SPSS/PC+
(version 4.0), the data are mapped using ATLAS PRO (version 2.1)
by Strategic Mapping, Inc. This program plots the data by
individual street address, permitting the researcher to search
for any type of qualitative differences between residences.
Also, physical plotting permits the researcher to identify any
spatial patterns present in the data that normal statistical
analysis would miss.
The model presented here analyzes the variables and looks
for interactions between the variables. Only results which are
statistically significant at the .05 level or below are reported
in this study.
The only items showing statistical significance were the
presence or absence of an alarm system (SEC3) and the interaction
between the home being located next to the golf course or park
(PARKGOLF) and the property to the left of the unit being of a
different type (SURPRPLT).
In this model, single-family homes located near the park or
golf course and have a building other than a single-family home
to their left are twice as likely to be the burglarized as homes
located in other areas. Most of the larger homes are located
around either the park or golf course (PARKGOLF). However, the
variable SURPRPLT, which examines the property on the left side
of the unit under study cannot be explained by either prior
research or on a theoretical basis. This writer believed that
all of the land-use variables (SURPRPLT, SURPRPRG, SURPRPFT, and
PARKGOLF) would be statistically significant or they would not be
in the equation. But this is not the case. Hopefully the
qualitative analysis will shed some light on this finding.
In addition, homes not protected by an alarm system were
five times as likely to be burglarized. Most of these systems
were installed in the homes that where located along the golf
course or park. These are larger homes in the area and are
apparently occupied by the upper-middle class. These people
would have the extra income that could be used to purchase an
alarm system. Unfortunately, this investigation could not
determine if the alarms where installed before or after a home
was burglarized.
The overall model is statistically significant (p = .0001).
The model chi-square for this equation is 18.317 (d.f. = 2). One
hundred and twenty-nine (96.27%) homes that were not burglarized
and 14 (19.72%) units that were burglarized were successfully
predicted using this equation. This interaction was able to
accurately predict 69.76% of the cases.
Only two variables were statistically significant (TREE and
SURPRPLT). Duplexes with trees limbs that are less than 6 feet
off the ground are five times more likely to be burglarized.
Failure to trim trees and shrubs provides burglars an opportunity
to enter a structure without being seen. With tree limbs close
to the ground, people are not able to see perpetrators standing
nearby, especially at night. This situation makes it difficult
for the police to spot someone standing near a tree. If the
limbs were at least 6 feet off the ground, then the police and
neighbors could tell if someone was hiding under the tree. Even
at night, with the limbs pruned to a minimum height of 6 feet,
light from the street or outside lighting would illuminate the
area. Also with the limbs at 6 feet, it would make climbing the
tree more difficult, reducing the chance of someone entering the
duplex through a window on an upper story.
Units having other types of property located on their left
side are three times more likely to be burglarized. Here again,
the variable SURPRPLT cannot be explained simply by quantitative
methods. As stated, it is hoped that the qualitative analysis
will shed some light on this finding.
The overall model is statistically significant, with a model
chi-square of 0.0027 (d.f. = 2, p = .0027). This equation was
able to correctly predict 56 (90.32%) duplexes that were not
broken into and seven (25.93%) that were burglarized.
Multifamily units that have other types of buildings located
on the left side are over 19 times as likely to be burglarized.
This researcher has already discussed the variable, SURPRPLT.
TYPFRNT examines whether the front door of the multifamily
unit is made out of wood or has glass in it. Apartments with
glass installed in the doors have a slightly higher (0.0668)
change of being burglarized. Most of the apartments in the Myers
Park area had solid wooden doors, but apartments having glass in
the front door makes it easier for someone to entry. This entry
is accomplished by simply knocking out the glass and unlocking
the door.
Twenty-one (95.45%) of the non-burglarized apartment
buildings and nine (45%) of burglarized multifamily units were
correctly predicted. Overall, 71.43% of the cases were predicted
by two variables, SURPRPLT and TYPFRNT. The overall model was
statistically significant at the .05 level (d.f. = 2, p = .0002).
The model chi-square was 17.304.
This section utilizes qualitative methods in analysis of the
data. To accomplish this goal, the first step is presenting an
overview of the Myers Park neighborhood and its surrounding area.
The work then reviews each of the dependent variables: single-family, duplex, and multifamily structures. Focusing on spatial
analysis, the writer searches for patterns among the independent
variables that were not identified by quantitative analysis.
The surrounding environment can effect the number and types
of problems in a neighborhood. The location of stores, schools,
and other businesses draw people from all over the city.
Therefore, the area that rings the Myers Park section of
Tallahassee needs to be examined. On the east side of the Myers
Park neighborhood are two city parks and a golf course. Country
Club Park is at the intersection of Golf Terrance Drive and
Magnolia Avenue. This 4.2 acre park contains three baseball
fields. Enclosing Country Club park is the Capitol City Country
Club which contains 17 acres. The golf course has a wooded area
on the east and south sides. Also on the south side, there is an
approximately 8-foot chain link fence that stretches from Golf
Terrace Drive to Country Club Drive. There are numerous holes in
this fence.
To the north of Capitol City Country Club lies the second
park. Myers Park is located at Lafayette Street and Myers Park
Drive. This 40-acre park includes a playground, fitness trial,
tennis courts, baseball diamonds, and a swimming pool. A fitness
trial runs through the large wooded area on the north and east
side of the park.
Beyond this is a predominantly white middle-class
residential neighborhood. This section of the city contains
mostly single-family homes. Here again, the larger and more
expensive units are found along the golf course.
To the west of the Myers Park neighborhood, is South Monroe
Street, which is a major commercial corridor of the city. This
is the only 4-lane major roadway in Tallahassee that a motorist
can use to travel in a north-south direction without changing
routes. This is a major commercial area of the city.
Florida A & M University is located less than a half mile
from the Myers Park neighborhood. This is one of two major
universities located in Tallahassee.
Adjoining the neighborhood to the north is the Capitol area,
a historical district, and Apalachee Parkway. This part of the
city is separated from the Myers Park community by Seaboard Coast
railroad. The parkway is the one of the major east-west highways
of the city. There are motels, restaurants, bars, and a shopping
mall located within walking distance of the Myers Park area.
To the south of the neighborhood is an area with both public
and subsidized rental housing. There are three public housing
projects within three-tenths of a mile. Additionally, Rickards
High School and Leonard Wesson Elementary School are located
within a mile of the Myers Park neighborhood. There are several
convenience stores, fast food restaurants, and small businesses
located within this area.
Mixed land-use is encouraged by the city's zoning code
(Tallahassee City Code 88-0-0024 1-3, 3-9-88). Within the
Myers Park community there are eight different zones. Most of
the area east of Meridian Street is zoned single, two, three,
four, and multiple-family residential district (RM-1). This is
low-density use. Along South Monroe Street the property is
listed as automotive commercial district (C-4). Between Meridian
Street and Monroe Street the area is zoned for central business
use (C-3), office and residential district (OR), general
commercial district (C-2), and multiple family residential
district (RM-3).
It was believed by the author that the three land-use
variables (SURPRPLT, SURPRPRG, and SURPRPFT) would all be
statistically significant or they all would not. This was not
so. One variable, SURPRPLT (property located on the left of the
unit being studied, while facing it from the road is a different
type of structure), was statistically significant. Just using
quantitative methods, this variable did not fit expected patterns
as suggested by prior research nor could the author state with
any degree of certainty why this variable was statistically
significant, while the other two land-use variables (SURPRPFT and
SURPRPLT) were not. By examining the maps, a clear pattern
emerges. When facing the various properties land-use patterns
shift to the left.
Most of the single-family homes that were burglarized were
located next to either the park or the golf course (Capitol City
Country Club) or on Meridian Street. Homes found along the golf
course are larger and better kept properties. In addition,
people who live outside the Myers Park neighborhood use the golf
course and park as a short cut when walking to reach Apalachee
Parkway. Apalachee Parkway is one of the major commercial strips
in Tallahassee with motels, restaurants, bars, businesses and a
shopping mall.
There are several foot paths on both the east and west side
of the golf course heading north. Across from the 1500 block of
Golf Terrace is a large ditch big enough for people to hide in or
to use it as a place to conceal stolen merchandise. In the 1700
block of Golf Terrace there is a wooded lot with several foot
paths leading over to Meridian Street. Foot paths traveling to
Meridian Street can also be found in the 1900 block of Golf
Terrace.
Meridian Street contains single-family residences, duplexes,
and commercial property. This mixed land-use contributes to the
burglaries on this street. Additionally, there are many empty
buildings located south of Palmer Avenue.
The area border by Palmer Street (north side), Gadsden
Street (east side), Magnolia Drive (south side) and Monroe Street
(west side) is a heavily wooded and grown up area. There is also
a series of duplexes on Lewis Street. This combination may
explain the burglaries on the south end of Gadsden Street. A
second neighborhood watch association has been formed that
encompasses Magnolia Street to the south, Monroe Street (west),
Perkins Street (north), and Gadsden Street to the east. Whereas
the Myers Park association deals with the Tallahassee Police
Department, this association is set up through the Leon Country
Sheriff's Office.
Another observation made during the data collection phase
was the number of trees and shrubs in the area. In many places
the greenery was not kept trimmed. For example, of the three
homes in the 1200 block of Golf Terrace, all had trees and
shrubbery overgrown and blocking the view of the house from the
street. Of 11 homes on Perkins Street, four had overgrown
shrubbery or trees on the property.
Most of the duplexes burglarized were located in the 1900
block of Meridian Street. To the rear of these duplexes is
Gadsden Street. In the same area on Gadsden Street is a series
of commercial buildings. Most of these commercial buildings are
either empty or closed after 5:00 p.m. The three burglaries on
Gadsden Street could be due to the location of a large vacant
field that is across the street. The rest of the duplexes are
located in a mixed-use area. Most of these units are surrounded
by single-family homes, multifamily units, or commercial
property.
As in the single-family section above, many duplexes have
shrubbery and trees that need trimming. Additionally, many of
these building are similar in appearance to each other. It is
possible that they were built around the same period. Many of
these have roll-out style windows (like those used in older
mobile homes). This type of window makes for easy access.
Many of the multifamily structures that were burglarized were located next to large undeveloped pieces of land (i.e., the golf course, park, or vacant field). Thirteen of the 15 units are located next to one of these areas. Three of the multifamily structures which were burglarized are located across from Myers Park. The units on Meridian Street are located across from a large open field that fronts on Monroe Street. The three crimes on Golf Terrace Drive are located across the street from the golf course and a city park. The one crime scene on Gadsden Street is located near a wooded area.
Only two environmental factors are discussed: land-use and
trees and their impact on crime within the neighborhood.
The major finding of this study deals with zoning issues.
The writer originally assumed that all the land-use variables
would be statistically significant or that none of them would be,
but this did not prove to be the case. All of the models
(single-family, duplex, and multifamily) had one independent
variable that was statistically significant. This variable was
SURPRPLT, which examined the land-use patterns on the left side
of the property under study. None of the theoretical models
(Defensible Space, CPTED, nor Routine Activities Theory) nor
prior research indicated why this variable might be significant.
Quantitative analysis alone could not provide an answer.
However, when using qualitative analysis the answer became clear.
Different types of properties join each other on the left side.
With single-family homes this variable combined with
PARKGOLF to be statistically significant. Here again, this
relationship is clarified by the inclusion of qualitative
methodologies. Most of the homes targeted by burglars were
located along the golf course or park. Additionally, this region
is where the more expensive looking homes were located.
These findings do not support the concept of mixed land-use
that Jacob's (1961) advocated and that the city of Tallahassee
utilized during this period. Most of the Myers Park community is
zoned for single, two, three, four, and multifamily settings (RM-1 and RM-3).
Work by Brantingham and Brantingham (1975) found that when blocks started switching from single-family to multifamily dwellings the rates of burglary increased. Greenberg et al. (1982) also found that homogeneous neighborhoods had lower rates of crime. These previous studies, along with the current research support land-use zoning that places different types of structure throughout the city. For example, one area would be zoned for commercial use. A second section of the city would be for multifamily units.
This researcher believed that the variables TREE and SHRUB
would be statistically significant for all the residential
settings. When collecting the data for this study, many of the
buildings seemed to have trees and shrubs that needed trimming.
For example on Oakland Drive, nine of the structures had trees or
shrubbery that needed to be trimmed.
Research by Taylor and Gottfredson (1986), Buck and Hakim
(1991, 1992a, 1992b), and Cromwell et al. (1991) found that homes
with dense shrubbery and trees were more likely to be
burglarized. This research agrees with part of the prior
research in that trees had an impact on the crime rate. However,
this impacted only on burglary rates for duplexes. Duplexes that
had trees with limbs that were close to the ground (less than 6
feet) were more likely to be burglarized. When the tree limbs
are close to the ground, people can hide behind them or use them
to climb the tree to gain entry to an upper level. By cutting
the limbs to a minimum height of 6 feet from the ground, this
makes it more difficult for someone to hide in or climb the tree.
Neither trees nor shrubbery were significant for the other
two dependent variables. No prior research differentiated
between single-family, duplex, and multifamily properties.
There could be a simple explanation for the fact that trees
are only significant for duplexes. Most single-family home
owners will keep the shrubs and trees trimmed. They may not meet
the criteria established for this research, but they are kept
pruned. Most multifamily structures will either have someone on
staff keeping up the grounds or they will have a company coming
in to clean up the grounds, including trimming the trees and
shrubbery.
Many security books discuss the disadvantages of having
glass located in front doors without a deadbolt lock. Doors
having glass panels located near the door lock make it easier for
the burglar to enter the property since all one must do is break
out the glass and unlock the door.
The type of front door was examined. Doors were listed as
either solid (no glass) or partial glass. It was assumed that
buildings with partial glass doors would have a higher burglar
rate.
The only place this held true was for multifamily
apartments. Apartments that had glass in the front door were
more likely to experience a burglary. For the other dependent
variables (single-family and duplexes) this did not hold true.
It could be that in these settings the door was fitted with a
deadbolt lock or other security devices not measured in this
research.
In conclusion, this research supports some of the tenets of
CPTED. Mixed land-use as a burglary deterrent did not receive
any support. In fact, this study suggests that mixed land-use
zoning be eliminated. Land-use is the only variable that showed
up as significant regardless of the type of property being
examined.
This study also shows the fallacy of treating all styles of
residential units as a single entity as prior studies have done.
There were different patterns found in the analysis depending on
the type of property (single-family, duplex, or multifamily).
Finally, this study expands on prior work by examining the
interaction effects. Several of the independent variables by
themselves were not significant. But when checking for
interaction effects, these same variables became significant.
This supports CPTED, which believes that there should be
interactions between the various variables. No other study has
ever tested this part of the theory.
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Kenneth A. Clontz, Ph.D.
Department of Law Enforcement and Justice Administration
Western Illinois University
Macomb, IL 61455
Phone (309) 298-2251
Fax (309) 298-2251
E-Mail: Kenneth_Clontz@ccmail.wiu.edu