This paper focuses upon professional development within the GIS organization for individuals who make lateral moves or otherwise come into the field of GIS with a lack of knowledge and skills in one or more of five critical areas. This frequently occurs during department reorganizations, career development programs and internships. While many forms of training are available, mentoring can provide the kind of long-term training that promotes the application of knowledge and the mastery of complex skills which are essential to a robust GIS. This can be accomplished through projects designed around five areas: (1) spatial reasoning, (2) computer science, (3) cartography, (4) interdisciplinary fields, and (5) GIS management. The person being mentored acquires skills and knowledge in the first three areas, while the mentor often obtains skills and knowledge in the fourth area. Lastly, mentoring each person within the GIS organization in various aspects of GIS management promotes shared responsibility and a team-based approach to maintaining a robust GIS.
GIS, though an evolving field, is a profession like many others with a comprehensive knowledge base and a complex array of skills for which mastery is required to become a professional. Acquiring this knowledge and mastering these skills requires both substantial education and experience. Many academic institutions now provide extensive programs specializing in GIS. Software vendors and consultants also provide training in GIS technology and computer programming related to GIS. However, GIS has not yet reached the level of other professions, such as engineering or architecture, which require formalized mentoring upon completion of an accredited college program. Nor is it likely to go as far as some trades that require indentured apprenticeship before granting journeyman status. Still, the value of a mentoring program is vital to the professional development of individuals entering the GIS field, especially as they migrate from other professions or enter through career development opportunities and internships. "Many GIS professionals did not begin their careers in GIS...Furthermore, most employees are eager to improve their skills and career potential. Helping them do this builds goodwill and fortifies the team atmosphere (Somers 1999 24)." Such persons are valuable for a number of reasons. One reason is that they bring knowledge of their own discipline into GIS. Another is that they have already established themselves as contributing to the organization. And lastly, they represent existing resources when budgets and programs are being put together.
In defining a mentoring program, it would be helpful to divide GIS into five basic areas within which to focus. These are (1) spatial reasoning, (2) computer science, (3) cartography, (4) interdisciplinary fields, and (5) GIS management. The first, spatial reasoning, is of greatest importance. Duane Marble identifies the need for spatial reasoning as "one of the most critical building blocks and refers to the ability of the individual to identify the most active spatial components of any given problem (Marble 1998 28)." He also identifies basic elements for working with a GIS. These include notions of scale, projection, elements of map design, as well as programming concepts and methods of data organization. He notes that "failure to master the basic elements leads to errors and inefficient use of GIS technology (Marble 1998 28)." Yet, while the basic elements of cartography and computer programming can be easily acquired from published materials or short training courses, the development of spatial reasoning requires a more substantive and guiding process. The same is true for computer science and for cartography. The development of computer science skills alone is a substantial task. To apply these skills to spatial objects and data requires further learning and development of skill. Lastly, cartography is much more than designing the appearance of a map. Maps can be misrepresented more easily than statistics, thereby the ability to communicate effectively through maps is critical.
The first three areas constitute the foundation of an effective mentoring program. The fourth area constitutes what is brought to the mentoring process by the learner and a means by which an organization�s GIS knowledge base is expanded. Lastly, the fifth area is intended for all professionals to learn about various functions of GIS management. Mentoring in this area promotes shared responsibility and a team-based approach to maintaining a GIS.
The first step is to perform an assessment of the learner�s knowledge and abilities. This can be done through a written test, an oral evaluation or by demonstration of existing skill. The mentor should measure for broad understanding of geographic concepts and the ability to discern technological approaches to implementing those concepts. The mentor should also measure for computer science skills, including knowledge of current programming languages along with knowledge of commands and functions needed to undertake a specific GIS project. Lastly, the mentor should measure for the ability to communicate information through maps, graphs and reports.
An easy way is to conduct an oral interview. Start with a problem that would require the use of spatial concepts such as direction and proximity. Next, show a normalized database and see if the learner can discern the relationship between the tables. Finally, ask the learner to identify the scale and projection of a map and what information is being communicated.
If the learner is deficient in basic GIS principles and techniques, the mentor can suggest readings and training to prepare the learner for the mentoring process. While mentoring can be undertaken early in the learning process, this is rarely advisable. It is better that the learner comes with a basic knowledge before entering the mentoring process.
Rather than leaving the learning process to chance, the mentor should adopt a consistent teaching style. The following methodology lends itself particularly well to the mentoring process as it allows the learner to grow toward self-sufficiency:
The above methodology is an iterative process of inquiry, guidance and discovery, that over time becomes internalized by the learner and leads to self-sufficiency in the learning process. Rene Descartes wrote about this process almost 400 years ago.
"One cannot so well seize a thing and make it one�s own, when it has been learned from another, as when one has himself discovered it�.Besides this, the habit which they will acquire, by seeking first what is easy, and then passing onward slowly and step by step to the more difficult, will benefit them more than all my instructions (Descartes 1992 74-76)."
As the learner grows toward self-sufficiency, he or she can move from the mentoring process to the collaborative process, having effectively prepared to contribute to the synergism of team-based projects.
The learning process should be structured, but not constrained. And, the most effective way to do this is by undertaking a project. It may be possible to perform a variety of tasks, but doing so is more likely to involve housekeeping activities rather than providing opportunities for substantive learning. Instead, a project requiring weeks or months to complete is more suited to the mentoring process. And, as tasks become available, they can be undertaken, along with the project, to develop certain skills or to allow for broader acquisition of knowledge.
Regarding the project, the following should be noted:
In undertaking this project, the mentor should begin by suggesting procedures and techniques, while avoiding detailed instructions. The mentor should then guide the learner using the iterative learning process. Once the project is complete, an evaluation should be conducted to determine whether the learner has succeeded under the mentoring process. If the project was carried out correctly, there should be a number of products, deliverables, or completed steps from which to identify the learner�s application of knowledge and skill.
There are many technical and procedural aspects to managing a GIS for which all professionals should posses a basic knowledge before entering the mentoring process. This knowledge also allows the professional to participate more effectively in system operations. In addition, there are many aspects to management that are universal to all professions, and educational opportunities regarding them are abundant, including graduate-level academic programs. However, such aspects are beyond the scope of this paper, except to identify three areas upon which the mentoring process should focus:
Dennis Beck (1997) identifies the top 10 mistakes often made when undertaking a GIS project and the consequences which include missed deadlines, overspent budgets and loss of quality. He indicates that projects should be managed proactively. "In even the most well-managed project, sometimes it makes sense to ease up on a deadline, a budget or a quality-control process. But these slips shouldn�t just happen. They should come from conscious decisions (Beck 1997 48)." The proactive approach anticipates problems and identifies potential concerns so that the project is always being directed by choice based upon objectives and an understanding of what is to be accomplished.
The technological complexity of a GIS can draw much of management�s focus; yet, "of all the tasks of management, managing the human component is the central and most important task, because all else depends on how well it is done (Lickert 1967 1)." Managing the human component requires an understanding of those characteristics essential to a GIS. These include initiative & creativity. The research of both Lickert (1967) and McGregor (1960) indicate that democratic or egalitarian management styles result in greater levels of productivity and quality than do any other philosophy of management. Norbert Wiener (1967) further elaborates on this style through the theory of cybernetics. The cybernetic model consists of communication networks where action is based as much upon feedback as upon command and control. In comparing an organization to the human body, Wiener asserts that workers should function as if they were part of the nervous system. For example, the brain may direct the hand to pick up an object; however, the nerve endings within the hand may indicate that the object is dangerously hot. The brain accordingly reacts to this feedback and cancels or modifies the directive.
The lesson to be learned is that decision-making and problem solving are team-based processes. By including the team in these processes, the project manager has succeeded in focussing on the most critical aspect of a GIS.
The GIS profession toady is facing some tough questions. Does GIS mean Geographic Information Systems, Geographic Information Science, or something else? Is it a technology, a science, a hybrid or what? Lastly, are the factors defining GIS driven by technology or by the social and physical sciences? As GIS professionals move into management, they need to confront these and other foundational questions. And, the mentoring process should assist the GIS professional in acquiring a broad understanding of these issues.
With understanding comes perspective and vision. The greater the understanding, the broader the perspective and clearer the vision. And, it is this vision that becomes the basis of leadership.
A lesson can be learned from establishing a GIS in the early days. Costs for data acquisition ran in the millions of dollars, and agencies learned to pool their financial resources and to share data that had already been acquired. The concept of shared resources became vital to developing a GIS. In the process of sharing data, many other resources were also shared, including knowledge and personnel. Professionals from other disciplines assisted in developing the organization�s GIS and some of them migrated into the field. They brought with them a wealth of interdisciplinary knowledge and of established practices for dealing with real-world problems. This environment helped spawn much of the mentoring that now occurs within GIS. By mentoring these professionals, their knowledge was retained and diffused within the GIS shop. Such shops thereby became successful at integrating GIS throughout the organization and into such diverse areas as land use planning, environmental engineering, transportation, and others.
In a broader context, learning can take place under a variety of conditions and within a variety of settings. And, how an organization provides training for its employees is largely dependent upon its culture and philosophy. Mentoring constitutes a substantial commitment of human resources in that it is a one-on-one relationship. Successful mentoring usually occurs between persons of achievement and ambition, who have demonstrated an interest in the organization and in the professional development of others. Before embarking upon a mentoring relationship, one should consider it carefully.
Beck, Dennis. 1997. Avoid the Top 10 GIS Project Mistakes. GIS world, October 1997, pp. 48-50.
Descartes, Rene. 1992. Discourse on Method. Translated by John Veitch. Easton Press: New York.
Lickert, Rensis. 1967. The Human Organization. McGraw-Hill: New York.
Marble, Duane F. 1998. Rebuilding the Top of the Pyramid. ARC News, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp 1, 28-29.
McGregor, Douglas. 1960. The Human Side of Enterprise. McGraw-Hill: New York.
Somers, Rebecca. 1999. Hire, Rent, or Train? Making Effective Investments in GIS Expertise. GeoInfo Systems, May 1999, pp. 20�25.
Wiener, Norbert. 1967. The Human Use of Human Beings. Avon: New York.